Interviewing
The reporter's job is to gather information from a variety of sources,
synthesize that information and prepare it for dissemination. The
No. 1 way in which a reporter gathers information is through interviewing.
It's so basic, but so difficult for so many. Like public speaking,
it is a fear for many to become vulnerable and risk asking a stupid
question or being shut out by a source. You need to overcome it. Interviews
are too important.
So, what is involved in an interview? To some it is just asking questions.
But what questions? To whom? What's okay and what's off limits?
Others have their ways of defining interviews and how to conduct them.
For instance:
- High
percentage tips for scoring a great interview
- Talk
to you? A reporter? Do I look like a fool?
I choose to look at the interview as a four-part process that involves
- Preparing for the interview
- Creating the interview situation
- Doing the interview, and
- Writing the story
Your best interviews will be face to face. In fact, many of the
best writers insist that that is the only way you should conduct
interviews. But the reality is that many reporters must conduct
interviews by phone because of their busy schedules. Today, some
interviews are conducted online via e-mail. We'll take a look later
at some of the advantages and disadvantages of those kinds of interviews.
We'll also take a later look at what kinds of information you can
use and what kinds you can't use; what's "on the record"
and "off the record".
Preparing for the interview
Many beginners overlook the importance of preparing for the interview.
After some experience you'll be able to walk into a new situation
cold turkey and start asking questions, but it is something to be
avoided. A lifetime of experience and stored knowledge, along with
honed interviewing skills must be developed first.
Until then, and even after then, you need to prepare for your interview.
The tricky part is that when you receive an assignment you suddenly
have a deadline. That deadline may be 10 minutes away, 10 days away,
or 10 weeks away. If it is just 10 minutes away you don't have too
much time for preparing for your interview. On the other hand, even
if you assignment is 10 days away you want to get moving on preparation
as quickly as possible.
Here are some key steps to preparing for an interview:
- Do your homework
One of the exciting things about journalism is that you may not
ever be a master of any one subject, but you've got to have enough
knowledge and experience to walk into almost any situation and
walk away with enough understanding of the subject to tell the
story to someone else (remember the "synthesize the story
and prepare it for dissemination" portion of that reporter
definition?).
Doing a little homework on your topic will help you understand
the topic and develop appropriate questions.
There are a number of places possible to do homework. You could:
- Read what has been written in your own publication on the
topic in the past. Most major newspapers and magazines keep
libraries of their back issues. They might not, however, have
kept an index of stories in those papers. That can make it
difficult to find old stories
- Read what others have written about the topic
- Do a library search in a "Periodical Guide." Today
most newspapers are cataloguing old publications with electronic
search databases. Doing online or library research can be
as simple as typing in a few key words. Some databases, however,
cost money. Lexis-Nexis is an outstanding electronic database
of published material, but costs a lot of money for access.
Our own college library has an excellent online search database
of magazine and newsletter articles.
- Ask people around you --including your editor-- "what
do you know about this?" to get some clues.
- Contact an organization involved in the topic to see if
its public relations arm has written any news releases on
the topic.
Remember, at this point you are not trying to become an expert,
just learn enough about the topic to start the next step of
forming questions. You are also trying to determine possible
sources to ask those questions to.
- Outline your questions
As a student publications adviser, I think the No. 1 question
I've been asked by new writers when given an assignment is "Who
should I talk to?" Undoubtedly, the No. 2 question is, "What
should I ask?"
While those are good questions, the whole point is to learn to
answer those yourself. Ironically, they point out exactly what
you need to be doing. The answer to "What should I ask?"
is "What don't you already know that you need to know to
write the story?" When you ask "Who should I talk to?"
and "What should I ask?" you are already starting to
ask yourself what you need to know.
Okay, we can do a little less esoteric and help you further with
deciding who to talk to and what to ask. But it is mostly an understanding
of how things around you work and a little critical thinking on
your part.
If you've had a chance to do some homework you've probably come
across at least one name associated with your topic. That is who
you might want to start with. Always be looking for more names.
Never be satisfied. A question I suggest you always ask at the
end of an interview is Who
else could I talk to to get more information?". Let
your source help you find additional sources. After all, he/she
is the expert.
Ask yourself:
- Who is the resident expert?
- Who is the person putting together this event?
- Who is responsible for this kind of thing?
Even if you don't know names, you can probably figure out jobs.
From there you look at phone directories or call operators or
ask people you know the names of the people who do those jobs.
Don't forget to add to your list of potential interviewees:
- Who is affected by this topic?"
Those who will be affected by changes make good sources.
As for determining questions to ask, if nothing else, fall back
on the 5 Ws and H.
- Who is involved?
- Who will be affected?
- What is happening?
- What will be the impact?
- What steps are involved?
- When will it happen or did it happen?
- Why did it happen?
- Where did it or will it happen?
- How will it happen?
Don't be worried about coming up with all of your questions
before an interview. Part of the interview process is to listen
to what is being said. Often times you will think of new questions
in the interview itself.
Don't become too married to the questions you do come up with,
either. Too often beginners, who are fighting butterflies in
their stomach, prepare a list of questions and are so intent
on asking them that they don't pay attention to what is being
said.
It is probably best to write down at least some questions, though.
Writing them down insures that you won't forget to ask them.
I had one former student who was quite good at preparation for
interviews. She would come up with a list of at least 10 questions
to ask and would type the questions on a sheet of paper with
an inch or inch-and-a-half space between each one. She would
write answers in that open space. But take extra paper if you
do that. You want to have room to write answers to questions
you come up with during the interview itself.
Try to walk into an interview session with at least ONE question
to ask.
- Prepare your attitude
Sometimes you get an assignment you are not particularly thrilled
with or have to talk to someone you would prefer not to interview.
But you'll get more out of your interview if you get over it.
Imagine walking into an interview and saying:
- "I was told to talk to you. You don't have anything
to share, do you?"
Of course a source will not have much to say if you have a negative
attitude like that.
Likewise, if you let your nervousness show through, your source
will sense that you are not in charge of an interview. Have
confidence in yourself. Don't be cocky, but be confident. At
least appear to be interested in what you are investigating.
People really DO like to talk about themselves, especially if
they sense you are interested in them.
- Contact your source
Now you are ready to contact your source. Do so with the intent
of setting up an appointment as soon as possible to talk to him/her.
Never assume you are going to have immediate access to your source.
But be prepared. Your source might surprise you by saying that
he/she will not be available later, but can talk to you RIGHT
NOW.
On one hand, you want to contact your first source as soon as
possible after getting an assignment, but you've got to do at
least minimal homework first. You might be called on to interview
the source on the fly. Have that first question ready to go.
On the other hand, you don't want to wait too long to start making
contacts with sources. Wait too long and you might find that they
are unavailable in time for you to meet your deadline. Besides,
what if you wait until the last minute and you find out there
is another source who can give you more information? You'll be
out of time.
And remember, there is no law saying that a source HAS to talk
to you. It is up to you to convince the source he/she WANTS to
talk to you.
- Dress appropriately
This obviously takes on less priority with phone interviews --until
video phones come into vogue-- but it is important. If you are
going to interview a garbage collector on the job, don't wear
your best suit. On the other hand, if you were going to interview
the President of the United States, you probably should not wear
your grubbies.
I had a student a number of years ago who was assigned to cover
a campus fashion show. Before the show she chose to interview
the head of the fashion merchandising department on campus. She
showed up for the interview wearing jeans three sizes too small
and a torn sweatshirt. The source was so uncomfortable in the
interview --she feared the student would show up to the fashion
show like that-- that immediately after the interview I got a
call from the source asking if someone else could cover the actual
fashion show.
Create the Interview Situation
After you've done your homework and set up the interview you've
got to create a good interview situation.
- Choose a private setting
A newsroom, busy cafeteria, etc. is a bad place to hold an interview.
Choose a private setting. Most often this will be somewhere near
the source's workplace or home. The key, though, is to get the
source to a location where you won't be interrupted.
While YOU might be more comfortable having the source come to
see you, it usually does not work that way. Usually you go see
your source . . . and usually on his/her turf. That's good, though.
It gives you an opportunity to make observations you wouldn't
around your familiar hangouts.
- Make the interviewee comfortable
Every once in a while when I interview a source he/she wants to
take advantage of a nice day and sit out under a tree. I've got
a bad back and hate doing that. But remember, the more comfortable
your source is, the more likely he/she is probably going to open
up to you.
The source DOES NOT have to talk to you. You want to make the
interviewee as comfortable as possible.
- If taping the interview, have the machine ready
More and more today you see reporters using tape recorders during
interviews. While there are some advantages to using tape recorders,
I recommend against it. Why? Because too many people use tape
recorders as their primary note taking, that's why. A tape recorder
should be a backup ONLY. Learn to take notes during an interview.
Use the recording only to clarify a quote or two.
If you do not take notes during an interview you have to listen
to the tape all over again and take notes at some point. Why not
learn to do it right the first time? Trying to take notes from
a tape recording is fraught with problems:
- If something happens to the tape, you are out of luck.
- If you can't make out something on the tape you don't have
the source handy to ask for a clarification.
- At minimum, you take twice as long to work on a story than
you would otherwise; you might actually work three or four
times longer if you keep starting and stopping the recorder
while you write your notes.
There is another potential problem with tape recorders. Sources
sometimes clam up in front of them.
I recall one interview with a friend on a report I was writing.
She knew I was good note taker and that everything she said
would be fair game for my report. She agreed to the taping of
the interview, but was visibly concerned. At one point when
I asked a question she pointed at the recorder and said, "Turn
that damn thing off for a minute."
I complied and soon she said it was okay to turn it back on.
A few minutes later she asked me to "turn that damn thing
off for a minute." I turned off for good and she was visibly
relieved and opened up even more.
If you DO decide to use a recorder here are some tips:
- Take notes!
- Make sure the recorder is working and you know how to work
it before you go into the interview. It should be a comfortable
tool. If you fumble with it at the beginning or during the
interview, you lose some control of the interview.
- Ask your source if it is okay to record. Be prepared for
a "NO." It is both illegal and unethical to record
surreptitiously.
- Once you turn the recorder on, place it an equal distance
between you and the source, but off to once side. If it is
directly between the two of you it becomes a wall.
- Don't keep looking at the recorder during the interview
to see if it is running or if the tape needs to be turned
over.
- Establish a good rapport with the source
When you start the interview you need to start off slowly. Don't
imitate Geraldo or Mike Wallace by bursting into a room and asking
your interviewee the thoughest question you can. Start off with
the simple stuff. You may have to engage in a few minutes of chit
chat about clothes, weather or something else.
Don't dawdle, but don't rush. Establish some rapport with your
source.
- Explain what you are doing
One way to establish rapport is to remind the source who you are
and what you are working on. If the person is unfamiliar with
the publication you are working for, you might want to explain
it to him/her.
- Be realistic on the length of time you need
When you ask for an appointment for an interview be realistic
on the time you need for the interview. Remind the source what
you've agreed to before you start. It is disappointing to need
a half hour and get only 10 minutes.
It is also is very poor manners to ask for a half hour when you
only need a few minutes.
- Be ready to take notes
And be ready to take notes. Don't come in an realize you forgot
a writing instrument, or your pen or pencil doesn't work. Have
a backup. It is embarrassing to have to ask yourself for a pen
or pencil.
And be sure to have something to write on.
A good notepad to use is one that you can balance on your lap
or in your hand. You never know whether you are going to have
a writing surface or not. A steno pad or a special reporter's
notebook works well. A three-ring binder or any 8.5x11-inch notebook
usually is not.
Do the interview
All that just to get started. Next you actually do the interview.
- Ask easy questions first
If you have tough or sensitive questions to ask your source, save
them for last. Start with easy questions and work your way into
the more complex, difficult or sensitive questions.
If you can imagine a graph where the horizontal axis represents
the length of time of an interview and the vertical axis represents
the usable information gained in the interview. As the interview
starts, you get little really usable information. You are establishing
rapport and asking simple questions. But as you start getting
to meatier questions the amount of usable information climbs.
Ask your source whether he has stopped beating his wife yet and
the amount of usable information takes a major dive and stays
low. You might even get thrown out. Make sure you leave with something
useful.
Of course, throughout most of your career you will seldom have
to ask sensitive questions. But don't be afraid to ask them when
you need to.
- Ask open-ended questions
It is usually best to ask open-ended questions instead of closed-ended
questions. A close-ended question is one that can be answer with
a "yes," "no," "maybe" or some short
answer like that. An open-ended question requires a longer, thought-out
answer.
You'll get more information and better responses from open-ended
questions.
- Keep control of interview . . . use pauses
Ever watch a politician answer a question? He/she seldom stays
on the question, but instead turns the answer into a pre-planned
speech.
There are advantages to letting your source have some free reign
on answers. Sometimes you learn something you didn't expect to
learn. But your job is to keep control of the interview and eventually
bring the source back to the subject.
In class I like to play a little game to illustrate this point.
I write a note on a piece of paper in front of everyone. I seal
the note in an envelope and ask someone to hold it for me and
the class. Then I invite someone in the class to ask me a question
. . . any question on any topic. I start to answer it something
like this . . . .
- I'm glad you asked that. Nuclear thermodynamics (or whatever
the question is about) is important. You've got to be really
bright to understand it. And speaking of bright, you should
see my little girl. She is so bright you wouldn't believe
it. Why just the other day . . . ."
Then I stop and ask the person holding the note to open it and
read it aloud. The note says:
- "Whatever you ask me, within 30 seconds I'll be
talking about my little girl."
Be courteous to your source, but don't let him/her take valuable
time for speech-afying. Find a logical spot to break in and
bring the source back to the correct topic.
Another little trick I've learned is to use pauses. Let a source
answer a question. Write the answer. And then look up and pause,
as though you are waiting for the source to continue. Most sources
will add information after just a few seconds of quiet. Don't
do that after every question, though. The trick will lose its
effect.
ABC's Sam Donaldson has a good technique, too. When someone
gives a question he doesn't fully hear or understand, he asks,
"Why do you say that?" It forces the source to restate
the answer with an example. Examples are good things to get
in your notes. They'll help you understand the story and help
your reader understand the story.
- Don't debate with source . . . but play Devil's advocate
Another trick to get information out of a source is to make him/her
defend his/her point of view. But don't argue with the source
or let him/her know you disapprove. It will close off communication
between the two of you.
Instead, play Devil's advocate by saying something like: "Your
critics would disagree with you. What is your answer to them?"
- Always conclude on an optimistic note
No matter how your interview goes, end all interviews on an optimistic
note. You never know if you will have to contact the source later
with a follow question.
I remember one interview where I kept saying to myself, "This
is a waste of time. This source is not giving me anything I haven't
gotten from other sources." But I kept a poker face and didn't
let my true feelings show through. At the end of the interview
I thanked the source and let him believe that he had been of enormous
help. Sure enough, a week later I ran across a question that I
should have asked him. He was more than happy to take my call
and "continue to help me."
Another thing beginners often do at the conclusion of an interview
that they should avoid is to wrap things up too quickly. They
are usually so nervous that they can't wait to get out of there.
Do that and you might miss an important piece of information.
When Jimmy Carter was running for President of the United States
on a Christian platform he made the surprising decision to allow
to be interviewed by Playboy magazine. The most memorable quote
that came out of the interview was one where he talked about his
religious beliefs and how he believed the Bible when it said that
if a man lusted after a woman in his heart it was the same as
committing adultery.
The reporter asked if he had ever lusted after another woman (than
his wife) in his heart.
"Yes, I have," Carter said.
The odd thing about that quote was that the question came AFTER
the interview, which had lasted a total of something 24 hours
over a half dozen sessions. The reporter had gotten so interested
in Carter after spending that much time with him that he was interested
in finding out more information. The question on religious beliefs
came after the formal interview was over. Carter was aware of
what was going on and did not object.
Write the Story
- Multiple sources usually better
Almost every story benefits from multiple sources. It is easy
to go to the "official" source. But talk to others who
are involved in the story or affected by the story. Even if your
story is a personality feature about one person, talk to those
who work with that person.
One of the issues involved with sources, though, is that sooner
or later you are going to come across a source who says, "I
want to see this story before it goes into print."
Different organizations have different rules for this, but most
do not allow it. Why does the source want to see the story? To
censor it if he/she doesn't like it?
What if there are multiple sources? Shouldn't they all see it?
And if one source changes a quote or some other element, shouldn't
all sources get a chance to see the story again? Pretty soon you
run out time and will miss your deadline.
Actually, people who have the audacity to ask this question usually
are more interested in you getting the story correct. They don't
have confidence in you. Take the time to talk over the story as
you see it. Go over your notes FOR THEM and make sure you've got
things right. You do, after all, want to be right. But showing
your story to the source is the weakest way to do that. Most news
organizations do not allow it.
- Arrange your main thoughts
The next step is to arrange the key thoughts of the story. Make
a simple list of the key elements and key quotes that you want
to include in the story.
This serves two purposes: 1) it allows you to create a rough outline
for your story (and maybe points out your lead to you), and 2)
it allows to see if you are missing some key information or don't
fully understand a point (and that you need to conduct another
interview).
For an example of organizing key thoughts, see the CITY
COUNCIL lecture.
- Write the lead
After organizing the key information, the next step, of course,
would be to write the lead. This is easier said than done. And
so far we've talked about single-element leads. Some stories have
multi-most-important elements. We'll discuss them in the Multi-Element
Leads lecture. If you need a review of lead writing, check
out the Leads lecture.
- Double check facts, quotes and names
Before you are through with the story you need to double check
your facts, quotes and names.
Once we had a student write a story about a student senate bill
that was found constitutional by the student court. The problem
with the story was that the court found the bill UNconstitutional.
It is just two letters, but changes the story considerably. Your
reputation as reporter rests on your credibility.
The same goes for quotes. By their very nature quotes are taken
out of context. And you are going to be accused of that sometime.
Just make sure that what you write is accurate and you don't change
the meaning of what the person said. Again, your reputation rests
on your credibility.
Sometimes I think the worst thing you can do is spell a person's
name incorrectly. People will long forget what you write, but
spell their name incorrectly and they will NEVER forget it.
- Don't forget the value of photos/visuals
We live in a visual world. As well written as your story may be,
it may be a photo or an infograph of some kind that will be what
attracts a reader to the story or help the reader understand the
story. Increasingly, the reporter is the one who has to spot the
possibility of the visual.
Let me share a story with you to illustrate the value of visuals.
While in college I took a newswriting class where I was assigned
a story about a local guy who was running for president from
his Fresno living room. He was an alumnus of the college,
so we thought it would make a cute story.
I arranged for the interview and showed up at his house. His
living room had been stripped bare except for a reclining
chair in the middle of the room. It was sitting up on a little
stage and had flags and streamers coming out the back of the
chair.
The guy running for president was leaning back in the chair
with his legs crossed. He was puffing on one of the largest
cigars I had ever seen. His live-in lover dutifully stood
three steps behind him on the left side. All he had to do
was glance over his shoulder to get her attention and to ask
for something.
She brought in a flimsy folding chair for me to sit on while
I interviewed him.
Getting the picture? Well, as good as a description I just
gave you, it simply does not match the reality. Even though
I had not been assigned to take a photo, I was glad I had a
camera with me. It sold the story. The story was originally
meant to be a small inside story, but ran on the front page
of the paper.
The reporter who has a variety of skills, like being able to
take a photo when one is needed, will be the one who finds jobs
later on.
- E-mail the answers to the following questions to me at rcameron@cerritos.edu:
- What are the different stages of the interview? Give
a brief description of each.
- What are my rules/suggestions on use of tape recorders?
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